(Crocodylus mindorensis ) Schmidt 1935
Local Name : Buwaya, Philippine Crocodile
Size and Proportions: Adults typically average between 1.3 to 2 meters (approx. 4.3 to 6.6 feet) in total length, with exceptional old males reaching a maximum recorded length of about 2.6 meters (8.5 feet).
Distinction from Saltwater Crocodiles: While closely related to the massive estuarine or saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), the Philippine crocodile is anatomically distinguished by several key features:
The presence of enlarged, prominent protective shields on the neck situated just behind the head.
Lower and more oblique facial ridges running in front of the eyes.
A distinct count of 16 to 18 very large ventral (belly) plates arranged between the axilla (front limbs) and the hind limbs.
Coloration: Its coloration pattern is similar to that of the saltwater crocodile—featuring dark brown to olive-green scales with darker bands, which helps it camouflage seamlessly against muddy riverbanks and leaf-littered freshwater pools.
Habitat, Behavior, and Ecology
Unlike its saltwater counterpart that thrives in coastal marine and estuarine zones, the Philippine crocodile is uniquely adapted to freshwater systems.
Where it Lives: It is strictly limited to inland freshwater habitats, including quiet freshwater lakes, marshes, swamps, small meandering streams, and the isolated headwaters of tropical rivers.
Behavior and Diet: Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular, it spends daylight hours basking on muddy banks or hidden among dense aquatic vegetation. Its diet consists of fish, freshwater crustaceans, amphibians, water snakes, and small mammals that venture too close to the water's edge.
Nesting: Females build mound nests composed of rotting vegetation, mud, and debris along riverbanks or lake shores during the dry season, fiercely guarding their clutch of eggs until hatching.
Geographic Distribution and Conservation Status
Endemic Range: The Philippine crocodile is strictly endemic to the Philippines. Historically, it was widely distributed across major islands including Mindoro, Luzon, Mindanao, Jolo, and Busuanga, alongside scattered populations in other regional wetland areas.
Conservation Status: Once abundant across its native freshwater ranges, the species was reduced almost to the point of extinction due to rampant overhunting for the international reptile skin trade, widespread wetland destruction, and retaliatory killing by humans fearing livestock loss.
Current Status and Protection: Today, the Philippine crocodile is classified as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, with surviving wild populations fragmented into tiny, isolated pockets (largely on Luzon and Mindanao). Intense conservation breeding, community-based protection programs, and strict national wildlife laws (Republic Act No. 9147) safeguard the remaining populations from illegal capture and trade.
Philippine Crocodile Taxon Profile
(Crocodylus porosus ) Schneider 1801
Local Name : Buwaya, Salt-water Crocodile, Salties
Physical Description & Morphology
Size and Weight: Recognized as the world's largest living reptile, adult males typically average 4 to 5 meters in length, though exceptional giants can exceed this.
Head and Snout: The snout is relatively broad and robust.
Dentition: There are 17 to 19 teeth on each side of the upper jaw, and 4 teeth on each side of the lower jaw positioned anterior to the tooth-row notch.
Scale and Armor Patterns: The bony plates (osteoderms) on the back are distinctly separated from one another by flexible soft skin. Ventral (belly) plates are moderate, numbering between 23 and 30 scales between the armpits (axilla) and hind limbs.
Coloration: The dorsal color is typically light brown to dark gray. Complete, dark black crossbands begin around the forelimbs and continue posteriorly, forming complete rings along the tail. Irregular black spots are scattered across the flanks and upper limbs, while the underside (ventral side) is a uniform yellowish-white.
Size and Weight: Recognized as the world's largest living reptile, adult males typically average 4 to 5 meters in length, though exceptional giants can exceed this.
Head and Snout: The snout is relatively broad and robust.
Dentition: There are 17 to 19 teeth on each side of the upper jaw, and 4 teeth on each side of the lower jaw positioned anterior to the tooth-row notch.
Scale and Armor Patterns: The bony plates (osteoderms) on the back are distinctly separated from one another by flexible soft skin. Ventral (belly) plates are moderate, numbering between 23 and 30 scales between the armpits (axilla) and hind limbs.
Coloration: The dorsal color is typically light brown to dark gray. Complete, dark black crossbands begin around the forelimbs and continue posteriorly, forming complete rings along the tail. Irregular black spots are scattered across the flanks and upper limbs, while the underside (ventral side) is a uniform yellowish-white.
Biological & Behavioral Notes
Dietary Shift Across Life Stages:
Juveniles feed primarily on aquatic insects (such as water beetles), crustaceans, small fish, frogs, and small turtles.
Adults are apex predators consuming large mammals, including wild pigs, deer, domestic goats, and cattle.
Man-Eater Status: Because of its immense size, aggressive territoriality, and opportunistic hunting behavior, Crocodylus porosus is a confirmed man-eater, which has historically fueled deep fear and hostility from human communities.
Bite Force: Estuarine crocodiles possess the strongest bite force of any living animal, measured in scientific studies up to an astonishing 3,700 pounds per square inch (PSI).
Growth Rates: Growth is variable but measurable. For example, a specimen kept at Silliman University for 4.5 years grew from an initial length of 575 mm and 1,061 grams to 902 mm and 3,235 grams—an elongation rate of roughly 50.04 mm per year. Growth slows drastically with age; a large 15.5-foot specimen at the Frankfurt Zoo took two full years to grow a mere 10 inches.
Reproduction & Maternal Care: Females construct large mound nests composed of rotting leaves, mud, and vegetation, laying a clutch of 25 to 60 eggs (measuring roughly 3 by 2 inches). The mother remains close to the nest throughout the two-and-a-half-month (approx. 65 to 85 days) incubation period to guard the eggs against predators.
Dietary Shift Across Life Stages:
Juveniles feed primarily on aquatic insects (such as water beetles), crustaceans, small fish, frogs, and small turtles.
Adults are apex predators consuming large mammals, including wild pigs, deer, domestic goats, and cattle.
Man-Eater Status: Because of its immense size, aggressive territoriality, and opportunistic hunting behavior, Crocodylus porosus is a confirmed man-eater, which has historically fueled deep fear and hostility from human communities.
Bite Force: Estuarine crocodiles possess the strongest bite force of any living animal, measured in scientific studies up to an astonishing 3,700 pounds per square inch (PSI).
Growth Rates: Growth is variable but measurable. For example, a specimen kept at Silliman University for 4.5 years grew from an initial length of 575 mm and 1,061 grams to 902 mm and 3,235 grams—an elongation rate of roughly 50.04 mm per year. Growth slows drastically with age; a large 15.5-foot specimen at the Frankfurt Zoo took two full years to grow a mere 10 inches.
Reproduction & Maternal Care: Females construct large mound nests composed of rotting leaves, mud, and vegetation, laying a clutch of 25 to 60 eggs (measuring roughly 3 by 2 inches). The mother remains close to the nest throughout the two-and-a-half-month (approx. 65 to 85 days) incubation period to guard the eggs against predators.
Habitat & Distribution
Habitat: Highly adaptable and euryhaline (tolerant of varying salinities), they are typically found in brackish and freshwater environments of lower river systems, mangrove swamps, tidal marshes, and even out at sea.
Distribution: Historically widespread, their contemporary wild populations in the Philippines are heavily restricted, now primarily limited to large rivers, remote mangrove estuaries, and major marshlands on larger islands in the southern regions of the country (such as Mindanao and Palawan).
Habitat: Highly adaptable and euryhaline (tolerant of varying salinities), they are typically found in brackish and freshwater environments of lower river systems, mangrove swamps, tidal marshes, and even out at sea.
Distribution: Historically widespread, their contemporary wild populations in the Philippines are heavily restricted, now primarily limited to large rivers, remote mangrove estuaries, and major marshlands on larger islands in the southern regions of the country (such as Mindanao and Palawan).
Ecological Status & Economic Importance
Conservation Status: Rare and critically depleted in many local Southeast Asian ranges due to historic overexploitation.
Economic Importance: Prized heavily for its high-grade skin, the hide is a major commodity in the global leather industry. Additionally, the commercial demand for crocodile meat has historically placed severe pressure on wild populations through intensive hunting.
ESTUARINE CROCODILE (Picture Gallery (click on photos to enlarge)
LEATHERBACK SEA TURTLE(Dermochelys coriacea) Vandelli 1761
Leatherback Sea Turtle
(Dermochelys coriacea )Vandelli 1761
Local Name : Pawikan, Binalat, Kantulog Kulod, Galangan Luth Turtle
Conservation Status: Rare and critically depleted in many local Southeast Asian ranges due to historic overexploitation.
Economic Importance: Prized heavily for its high-grade skin, the hide is a major commodity in the global leather industry. Additionally, the commercial demand for crocodile meat has historically placed severe pressure on wild populations through intensive hunting.
(Dermochelys coriacea )Vandelli 1761
Local Name : Pawikan, Binalat, Kantulog Kulod, Galangan
Physical Description and Morphology
Size and Weight: Recognized as the world's largest living turtle and the heaviest non-crocodilian reptile, adult leatherbacks typically reach a total length of 1.5 to 2.2 meters and can weigh between 250 and 700 kilograms. Exceptional specimens can reach lengths over 2.5 meters and weigh up to 900 kilograms or more.
Shell Structure: Unlike other turtles with hard, bony shells covered in keratin scutes, the leatherback lacks a traditional bony carapace. Instead, its body is encased in a resilient, leathery mosaic of tough, oil-saturated connective tissue and thousands of tiny dermal bones. Seven distinct longitudinal ridges run down the length of the back, streamlining the turtle for hydrodynamic efficiency.
Head and Jaws: The head is relatively small and lacks a crushing triturating surface on the jaws. Instead, the upper jaw has two prominent cusp-like projections (tooth-like hooks) at the front, flanked by deep notches designed to catch slippery prey. The inside of the mouth and esophagus are lined with backward-pointing, spine-like papillae (or cusps) that trap jellyfish and prevent them from escaping.
Flipper Anatomy: Foreflippers are exceptionally long and powerful, often spanning up to 2.7 meters across in adults, functioning like wings to propel the turtle thousands of miles across open oceans. They completely lack claws.
Coloration: The dorsal side is primarily dark gray to black, beautifully punctuated with a scattering of distinctive white or pinkish spots, which are unique to each individual. The underside (ventral side) is mottled pinkish-white and dark brown.
Size and Weight: Recognized as the world's largest living turtle and the heaviest non-crocodilian reptile, adult leatherbacks typically reach a total length of 1.5 to 2.2 meters and can weigh between 250 and 700 kilograms. Exceptional specimens can reach lengths over 2.5 meters and weigh up to 900 kilograms or more.
Shell Structure: Unlike other turtles with hard, bony shells covered in keratin scutes, the leatherback lacks a traditional bony carapace. Instead, its body is encased in a resilient, leathery mosaic of tough, oil-saturated connective tissue and thousands of tiny dermal bones. Seven distinct longitudinal ridges run down the length of the back, streamlining the turtle for hydrodynamic efficiency.
Head and Jaws: The head is relatively small and lacks a crushing triturating surface on the jaws. Instead, the upper jaw has two prominent cusp-like projections (tooth-like hooks) at the front, flanked by deep notches designed to catch slippery prey. The inside of the mouth and esophagus are lined with backward-pointing, spine-like papillae (or cusps) that trap jellyfish and prevent them from escaping.
Flipper Anatomy: Foreflippers are exceptionally long and powerful, often spanning up to 2.7 meters across in adults, functioning like wings to propel the turtle thousands of miles across open oceans. They completely lack claws.
Coloration: The dorsal side is primarily dark gray to black, beautifully punctuated with a scattering of distinctive white or pinkish spots, which are unique to each individual. The underside (ventral side) is mottled pinkish-white and dark brown.
Biological & Behavioral Notes
Specialized Diet: Leatherbacks are obligate gelatinous carnivores, feeding almost exclusively on jellyfish, siphonophores (like the Portuguese man o' war), and tunicates (salps). Due to their specialized diet, they play a vital role in regulating marine jellyfish populations.
Deep-Diving Adaptations: They are among the deepest-diving air-breathing vertebrates in the ocean. They can routinely dive to depths exceeding 1,000 meters (3,300 feet) and remain submerged for up to 85 minutes, facilitated by a collapsible shell, high blood-oxygen storage capacity, and high concentrations of myoglobin in their muscles.
Endothermy (Warm-Bloodedness): Unlike most reptiles, leatherbacks are endothermic or gigantothermic. They maintain a body temperature significantly warmer than the surrounding water through a combination of large body mass, thick insulating fat layers, counter-current heat exchangers in their flippers, and metabolic heat generated by continuous swimming.
Reproduction & Nesting: Females migrate vast distances between foraging grounds and tropical nesting beaches. They crawl ashore at night, excavating a deep nest flask in sandy beaches to lay a clutch of 70 to 100 yolked eggs (along with several smaller, yolkless "spacer" eggs). Incubation lasts about 50 to 70 days, and like most reptiles, hatchling sex is determined by sand temperature during the middle third of incubation (warmer temperatures produce females, cooler temperatures produce males).
Specialized Diet: Leatherbacks are obligate gelatinous carnivores, feeding almost exclusively on jellyfish, siphonophores (like the Portuguese man o' war), and tunicates (salps). Due to their specialized diet, they play a vital role in regulating marine jellyfish populations.
Deep-Diving Adaptations: They are among the deepest-diving air-breathing vertebrates in the ocean. They can routinely dive to depths exceeding 1,000 meters (3,300 feet) and remain submerged for up to 85 minutes, facilitated by a collapsible shell, high blood-oxygen storage capacity, and high concentrations of myoglobin in their muscles.
Endothermy (Warm-Bloodedness): Unlike most reptiles, leatherbacks are endothermic or gigantothermic. They maintain a body temperature significantly warmer than the surrounding water through a combination of large body mass, thick insulating fat layers, counter-current heat exchangers in their flippers, and metabolic heat generated by continuous swimming.
Reproduction & Nesting: Females migrate vast distances between foraging grounds and tropical nesting beaches. They crawl ashore at night, excavating a deep nest flask in sandy beaches to lay a clutch of 70 to 100 yolked eggs (along with several smaller, yolkless "spacer" eggs). Incubation lasts about 50 to 70 days, and like most reptiles, hatchling sex is determined by sand temperature during the middle third of incubation (warmer temperatures produce females, cooler temperatures produce males).
Habitat & Distribution
Habitat: Highly pelagic (open-ocean) creatures, leatherbacks spend nearly their entire lives traversing deep marine waters, from the tropics to sub-polar latitudes. They visit coastal shallow waters primarily during the nesting season.
Distribution: They have the most extensive global distribution of any reptile, ranging across all tropical and temperate oceans from the Arctic Circle down to the southern tip of Africa and South America. In the Philippines, they are rare migratory visitors, though historical nesting has occasionally been recorded on select southern beaches (such as in the Turtle Islands or parts of Mindanao and Palawan).
Habitat: Highly pelagic (open-ocean) creatures, leatherbacks spend nearly their entire lives traversing deep marine waters, from the tropics to sub-polar latitudes. They visit coastal shallow waters primarily during the nesting season.
Distribution: They have the most extensive global distribution of any reptile, ranging across all tropical and temperate oceans from the Arctic Circle down to the southern tip of Africa and South America. In the Philippines, they are rare migratory visitors, though historical nesting has occasionally been recorded on select southern beaches (such as in the Turtle Islands or parts of Mindanao and Palawan).
Ecological Status & Economic Importance
Conservation Status: Critically Endangered globally. Populations have suffered precipitous declines due to severe anthropogenic threats, including egg poaching, entanglement in commercial fishing gear (longlines and gillnets), marine plastic pollution (mistaking plastic bags for jellyfish), and coastal development destroying nesting beaches.
Economic Importance: Historically hunted for their meat, oil, and leather-like skin. Today, direct commercial harvest is largely banned under international law (CITES Appendix I), but accidental bycatch in commercial fisheries remains a major mortality factor. Indigenous communities in some regions have traditionally harvested their eggs, though modern conservation frameworks increasingly prioritize strict protection and community-based management.
Conservation Status: Critically Endangered globally. Populations have suffered precipitous declines due to severe anthropogenic threats, including egg poaching, entanglement in commercial fishing gear (longlines and gillnets), marine plastic pollution (mistaking plastic bags for jellyfish), and coastal development destroying nesting beaches.
Economic Importance: Historically hunted for their meat, oil, and leather-like skin. Today, direct commercial harvest is largely banned under international law (CITES Appendix I), but accidental bycatch in commercial fisheries remains a major mortality factor. Indigenous communities in some regions have traditionally harvested their eggs, though modern conservation frameworks increasingly prioritize strict protection and community-based management.
LEATHERBACK SEA TURTLE (Picture Gallery (click on photos to enlarge)
GREEN SEA TURTLE(Chelonia mydas) Linnaeus,1758
Green Sea Turtle
(Chelonia mydas )Linnaeus 1758
Local Name : Pawikan, Anono, Payukan
(Chelonia mydas )Linnaeus 1758
Local Name : Pawikan, Anono, Payukan
Taxonomy & Nomenclature: Named not for the color of its shell, but for the greenish hue of its subcutaneous fat and body tissues, which results from its herbivorous diet.
Taxonomy & Nomenclature: Named not for the color of its shell, but for the greenish hue of its subcutaneous fat and body tissues, which results from its herbivorous diet.
Physical Description and Morphology
The green sea turtle is one of the largest hard-shelled sea turtles in the world.
Size & Weight: Adults typically reach a carapace (upper shell) length of 90 to 120 cm and can weigh between 110 to 190 kg.
Morphology:
The upper shell features smooth, non-overlapping shields (scutes) that are olive, brown, or reddish-brown, beautifully blotched or streaked with yellow and dark brown.
The head features a pair of prefrontal scales between the eyes, and unlike the hawksbill turtle, its jaw is unhooked with a finely serrated lower jaw adapted for tearing vegetation.
Flippers typically bear a single visible claw on each limb (though juveniles may sometimes show two).
Coloration: Head shields are reddish-brown edged with black; flippers are dark olive-brown above and a vibrant lemon-yellow below.
Biological & Ecological Notes
The green turtle is arguably the most extensively studied marine turtle species in the world, largely due to the pioneering life-history and migration research of conservationist Dr. Archie Carr.
Diet & Foraging: While hatchlings and young juveniles are opportunistic omnivores feeding on jellyfish, small crustaceans, and molluscs, adults are strictly herbivorous. They graze primarily on seagrasses and marine algae, playing a vital role in maintaining the health of coastal ecosystems.
Reproduction & Nesting: Females return to their natal (birth) sandy beaches to nest, typically laying clutches of around 100 eggs per nest multiple times in a single breeding season.
Migration: Adults are remarkable navigators, traveling thousands of miles between foraging grounds and nesting beaches.
Predators & Threats: Hatchlings face heavy predation from birds, crabs, and fish as they scramble to the sea. However, humans remain the greatest threat, through the harvesting of both adults and eggs, accidental capture in fishing gear (bycatch), and coastal development.
Breeding Season: Varies significantly by latitude—for instance, occurring from May to September in western Borneo. In the Philippines, nesting occurs across various protected island rookeries, though historical data remains fragmented.
Habitat & Distribution
Habitat: Primarily inhabits shallow coastal waters, bays, lagoons, and protected reefs rich in seagrass meadows and marine algae.
Distribution: Found circumtropically around the globe. In the Philippines, they are distributed nationwide across coastal waters and island chains such as Tawi-Tawi, Turtle Island Group which is a very major and significant nesting site, other nesting site that occur in the Philippines are also in the province of Palawan, Antique, Basialan and Zaboanga del Sur. . Warm ocean currents occasionally carry individuals beyond 35° north or south of the equator into temperate zones.
Habitat: Primarily inhabits shallow coastal waters, bays, lagoons, and protected reefs rich in seagrass meadows and marine algae.
Distribution: Found circumtropically around the globe. In the Philippines, they are distributed nationwide across coastal waters and island chains such as Tawi-Tawi, Turtle Island Group which is a very major and significant nesting site, other nesting site that occur in the Philippines are also in the province of Palawan, Antique, Basialan and Zaboanga del Sur. . Warm ocean currents occasionally carry individuals beyond 35° north or south of the equator into temperate zones.
Conservation & Ecological Status
Global Status: Listed globally as Endangered by the IUCN Red List, facing ongoing population pressures.
Local Status in the Philippines: Historically considered rare due to historical overexploitation. Today, strict national laws (such as the Philippine Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act) protect them and their nesting grounds, though illegal poaching and egg harvesting persist in remote areas.
Global Status: Listed globally as Endangered by the IUCN Red List, facing ongoing population pressures.
Local Status in the Philippines: Historically considered rare due to historical overexploitation. Today, strict national laws (such as the Philippine Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act) protect them and their nesting grounds, though illegal poaching and egg harvesting persist in remote areas.
Economic & Cultural Importance
Historically, Chelonia mydas has been one of the most economically valuable reptiles in the world:
Culinary Demand: Highly prized for its tender meat and fat used in traditional turtle soup, driving heavy commercial harvesting in past decades.
Shell and Souvenir Trade: Historically hunted for its skin, oil, and shell. In unregulated areas, young turtles were unfortunately taxidermied and sold as decorative souvenirs.
Eco-Tourism Shift: Today, rather than being exploited for meat and souvenirs, living green turtles are increasingly valuable to the Philippines through eco-tourism and snorkeling/diving attractions, generating sustainable local revenue while keeping populations alive.
Hawksbill Sea Turtle
(Eretmochelys imbricata)Linnaeus 1766
Local Name : Pawikan, Sisikan
Description & Morphology
- Scientific Name: Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus)
- Common Names: Hawksbill, Hawksbill Sea Turtle
- Size & Weight: Typically ranges from 30 to 75 cm in carapace length (though adults can grow up to 90 cm or more) and weighs around 45 to 80 kg.
- Morphology: A medium-sized marine turtle featuring paddle-shaped flippers, each equipped with two visible claws. Its defining characteristic is its narrow, sharp, hooked beak (resembling a hawk's bill), which allows it to reach into crevices in coral reefs.
- Shell Structure: The carapace (upper shell) consists of thick, amber-colored scutes that are strongly overlapping (imbricated) like roof shingles and feature distinct serrated edges. The carapace has three prominent longitudinal keels, while the plastron (underbelly) features two keels.
- Coloration: Dorsally, they display a rich, dark brown background heavily mottled with amber, yellow, and reddish tones. The head shields are dark with yellowish margins, and the plastron is typically yellowish, occasionally marked with dark spots on posterior corners.
(Eretmochelys imbricata)Linnaeus 1766
Local Name : Pawikan, Sisikan
Description & Morphology
- Scientific Name: Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus)
- Common Names: Hawksbill, Hawksbill Sea Turtle
- Size & Weight: Typically ranges from 30 to 75 cm in carapace length (though adults can grow up to 90 cm or more) and weighs around 45 to 80 kg.
- Morphology: A medium-sized marine turtle featuring paddle-shaped flippers, each equipped with two visible claws. Its defining characteristic is its narrow, sharp, hooked beak (resembling a hawk's bill), which allows it to reach into crevices in coral reefs.
- Shell Structure: The carapace (upper shell) consists of thick, amber-colored scutes that are strongly overlapping (imbricated) like roof shingles and feature distinct serrated edges. The carapace has three prominent longitudinal keels, while the plastron (underbelly) features two keels.
- Coloration: Dorsally, they display a rich, dark brown background heavily mottled with amber, yellow, and reddish tones. The head shields are dark with yellowish margins, and the plastron is typically yellowish, occasionally marked with dark spots on posterior corners.
Diet & Biological Notes
- Diet & Foraging: Highly specialized carnivores, hawksbills feed primarily on marine sponges using their powerful jaws to pry them from coral reefs. They also consume anemones, squid, and shrimp. Despite their sponge-heavy diet, captive studies show they adapt well to fish and seaweeds.
- Reproduction: Females return to their natal beaches every 2 to 4 years to nest. They lay an average of 115 to 120 eggs per clutch and can nest multiple times within a single season.
- Incubation & Hatching: Eggs incubate in warm sand for roughly 60 days before hatching. Hatchlings emerge primarily at night and use light reflections from the horizon to find the ocean.
- Nesting Season: In the Indian Ocean, nesting occurs year-round, peaking between September and November. In the Philippines, nesting activity has been documented in various island sanctuaries, though much of the localized data remains under-studied.
Habitat & Distribution
- Habitat: Primarily inhabit tropical and subtropical waters, showing a strong affinity for coral reefs, rocky areas, shallow lagoons, mangrove estuaries, and mangrove-fringed bays where their primary food sources thrive.
- Distribution: Widely distributed throughout the marine waters and archipelagos of the Philippines, as well as the broader Indo-Pacific, Atlantic, and Caribbean regions.
In the Philippines, while green sea turtles primarily occupy sandy beaches like the Turtle Islands in Tawi-Tawi, hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) tend to nest in distinct coastal environments—frequently utilizing coral rubbles, rocky patches, and mixed sandy-gravel shorelines.
Key nesting areas and critical habitats documented across the Philippine archipelago include:
1. Northern Mindanao (Misamis Oriental & Surrounding Bays)
- Gingoog Bay and Macajalar Bay: This region represents one of the most thoroughly documented and active nesting strongholds for hawksbills in the country.
- Candiis, Magsaysay, & Salay (Misamis Oriental): The coastal village of Candiis features a long dark shoreline where hawksbills regularly return to nest year-round, peaking during the first quarter of the year. Due to this high frequency, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) established a 612-hectare critical habitat spanning these coastal areas to protect nesting females and their eggs.
2. Davao Region & Surigao
- Davao City (Punta Dumalag, Matina Aplaya): The local government unit and environmental agencies established a critical habitat specifically for nesting hawksbill turtles at Punta Dumalag, where females occasionally haul ashore despite urban expansion.
- Regional Coastlines: Historical and field surveys also note hawksbill nesting activity spread across coastal segments of Davao del Sur, Davao del Norte, and Surigao del Sur, where they favor coarse sand mixed with coral debris.
3. Other Regional Habitats
- Lagunoy Gulf (Bicol Region): Identified as a vital development and nesting-associated habitat for hawksbill populations.
- Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape & Palawan Waters: While regions like the Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park and the coasts of Palawan serve primarily as major developmental and foraging grounds rich in coral reef ecosystems, occasional nesting and in-water aggregations are regularly recorded by marine conservation groups.
Conservation Status & Threats
- Global Status: Classified globally by the IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered due to historical overexploitation, despite historical local assessments noting them as common in certain regions.
- Major Threats:
- Poaching for the illegal wildlife trade (specifically for tortoise-shell jewelry and decorative items).
- Coastal development and destruction of coral reef and nesting habitats.
- Accidental capture (bycatch) in commercial fishing gear, marine pollution, and ingestion of plastic debris.
Economic & Cultural Importance
Historically, the hawksbill was heavily utilized in the Philippines. While its meat is consumed locally, its primary commercial value came from its translucent, beautifully patterned shell scutes—the source of commercial "tortoise shell" (bekko).
Furthermore, juvenile and adult specimens are frequently targeted by illegal taxidermy trades, being stuffed and sold as souvenirs or ornamental home decor. Because of these intense pressures, wild populations have experienced severe declines across many Philippine islands, prompting stronger national protections under Philippine wildlife laws (such as the Philippine Fisheries Code and the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act).
HAWKSBILL SEA TURTLE (Picture Gallery (click on photos to enlarge)
Hawksbill Sea Turtle Taxon Profile
CANTOR'S GIANT SOFTSHELL TURTLE
(Pelochelys cantorii) Gray, 1864
Diet & Biological Notes
- Diet & Foraging: Highly specialized carnivores, hawksbills feed primarily on marine sponges using their powerful jaws to pry them from coral reefs. They also consume anemones, squid, and shrimp. Despite their sponge-heavy diet, captive studies show they adapt well to fish and seaweeds.
- Reproduction: Females return to their natal beaches every 2 to 4 years to nest. They lay an average of 115 to 120 eggs per clutch and can nest multiple times within a single season.
- Incubation & Hatching: Eggs incubate in warm sand for roughly 60 days before hatching. Hatchlings emerge primarily at night and use light reflections from the horizon to find the ocean.
- Nesting Season: In the Indian Ocean, nesting occurs year-round, peaking between September and November. In the Philippines, nesting activity has been documented in various island sanctuaries, though much of the localized data remains under-studied.
Habitat & Distribution
- Habitat: Primarily inhabit tropical and subtropical waters, showing a strong affinity for coral reefs, rocky areas, shallow lagoons, mangrove estuaries, and mangrove-fringed bays where their primary food sources thrive.
- Distribution: Widely distributed throughout the marine waters and archipelagos of the Philippines, as well as the broader Indo-Pacific, Atlantic, and Caribbean regions.
In the Philippines, while green sea turtles primarily occupy sandy beaches like the Turtle Islands in Tawi-Tawi, hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) tend to nest in distinct coastal environments—frequently utilizing coral rubbles, rocky patches, and mixed sandy-gravel shorelines.
Key nesting areas and critical habitats documented across the Philippine archipelago include:
1. Northern Mindanao (Misamis Oriental & Surrounding Bays)
- Gingoog Bay and Macajalar Bay: This region represents one of the most thoroughly documented and active nesting strongholds for hawksbills in the country.
- Candiis, Magsaysay, & Salay (Misamis Oriental): The coastal village of Candiis features a long dark shoreline where hawksbills regularly return to nest year-round, peaking during the first quarter of the year. Due to this high frequency, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) established a 612-hectare critical habitat spanning these coastal areas to protect nesting females and their eggs.
2. Davao Region & Surigao
- Davao City (Punta Dumalag, Matina Aplaya): The local government unit and environmental agencies established a critical habitat specifically for nesting hawksbill turtles at Punta Dumalag, where females occasionally haul ashore despite urban expansion.
- Regional Coastlines: Historical and field surveys also note hawksbill nesting activity spread across coastal segments of Davao del Sur, Davao del Norte, and Surigao del Sur, where they favor coarse sand mixed with coral debris.
3. Other Regional Habitats
- Lagunoy Gulf (Bicol Region): Identified as a vital development and nesting-associated habitat for hawksbill populations.
- Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape & Palawan Waters: While regions like the Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park and the coasts of Palawan serve primarily as major developmental and foraging grounds rich in coral reef ecosystems, occasional nesting and in-water aggregations are regularly recorded by marine conservation groups.
Conservation Status & Threats
- Global Status: Classified globally by the IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered due to historical overexploitation, despite historical local assessments noting them as common in certain regions.
- Major Threats:
- Poaching for the illegal wildlife trade (specifically for tortoise-shell jewelry and decorative items).
- Coastal development and destruction of coral reef and nesting habitats.
- Accidental capture (bycatch) in commercial fishing gear, marine pollution, and ingestion of plastic debris.
Economic & Cultural Importance
Historically, the hawksbill was heavily utilized in the Philippines. While its meat is consumed locally, its primary commercial value came from its translucent, beautifully patterned shell scutes—the source of commercial "tortoise shell" (bekko).
Furthermore, juvenile and adult specimens are frequently targeted by illegal taxidermy trades, being stuffed and sold as souvenirs or ornamental home decor. Because of these intense pressures, wild populations have experienced severe declines across many Philippine islands, prompting stronger national protections under Philippine wildlife laws (such as the Philippine Fisheries Code and the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act).
Hawksbill Sea Turtle Taxon Profile
Cantori's Giant Softshell Turtle
(Pelochelys cantorii) Gray 1864
Local Name : Antipa, Cagot, Labi, Asian Giant Softshell Turtle, Frog-faced Softshell Turtle
(Pelochelys cantorii) Gray 1864
Local Name : Antipa, Cagot, Labi, Asian Giant Softshell Turtle,
The Cantor's giant softshell turtle (Pelochelys cantorii), locally referred to in parts of northern Luzon as "cagot" and in other parts of the Philippines its "labi" or "antipa". Cantori's Giant Softshell Turtle is one of the most enigmatic and threatened reptile species in the Philippines. Description & Morphology- The Soft Shell: Unlike typical hard-shelled turtles, its shell (carapace) lacks bony scales or scutes. Instead, it is flat, rubbery, disc-like, and surrounded by thick, soft cartilaginous margins.
- "Frog-faced" Structure: It features a broad, flattened head with very small eyes positioned close to the absolute tip of its mouth, giving it a distinctive frog-like facial structure. It possesses a remarkably short, stubby snout (proboscis) compared to other softshell species.
- Coloration: The carapace is uniformly smooth and olive to olive-brown. Its underside (plastron) is an unpatterned, uniform off-white. Hatchlings and juveniles often exhibit yellow framing around their shells and dark spotting on their heads.
- Size: It is considered the largest extant freshwater turtle species. Adults globally can grow up to 39 inches (100 cm) in carapace length and exceed 220 pounds (100 kg). Local specimens rescued in the Philippines, like the breeding female "Malaya," measure around 47 cm and weigh roughly 10 kg. [
Habitat & Habits- Benthic Lifestyle: This turtle is a highly aquatic, deep-water creature that spends 95% of its existence buried completely motionless under the muddy or sandy bottom substrate of riverbeds. Only its eyes and nose protrude through the sediment to monitor the water column.
- Breathing & Physiology: Because it lives buried underwater, it only surfaces to breathe fresh atmospheric air twice a day. It supplements this via pharyngeal and cloacal tissue respiration, effectively absorbing dissolved oxygen directly from the water.
- Ambush Feeding: It is a hyper-fast carnivorous ambush predator. Hidden in the sand, it waits for fish, crustaceans, and mollusks to pass before snapping out its neck with explosive velocity.
- Brackish Water Tolerance: While fundamentally a lowland freshwater river species, it possesses an extraordinary physiological tolerance for saline and brackish water, enabling individuals to move freely through coastal estuaries, mangrove swamps, and river mouths.
Distribution in the PhilippinesWhile the species ranges extensively across South and Southeast Asia, the Philippine population is fragmented and historically restricted to specific large river catchments: - Luzon Island: Historically documented across major watersheds including Cagayan, Isabela, and Quirino. Its most critically active modern stronghold is the pristine, fast-flowing Apayao River system within the globally recognized Biosphere Reserve of the yApayao (BRyA).
- Mindanao Island: Historically recorded in the Agusan del Sur region, particularly around the vast marshlands of the Agusan River basin, though modern sightings here are incredibly sparse.
Ecological Importance- Apex Riverine Cleaner: As a long-lived apex carnivore, it acts as a natural filter and cleaner for major river systems. By feeding on decaying organic matter, weak or diseased fish, and abundant crustaceans, it regulates aquatic populations and prevents the stagnation of inland waterways.
- Bio-Indicator of River Health: Because they strictly require clean, stable sand or mud substrates, minimal chemical pollution, and complex undisturbed river dynamics to burrow and breed, their presence serves as a direct indicator of a highly functional, healthy watershed ecosystem.
Conservation Status
- Global & National Status: It is classified globally as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List due to an estimated 80% population decline. Locally, it is heavily protected under DENR Administrative Order No. 2019-09.
- Primary Threats: The species faces extinction due to river siltation from deforestation, sand-mining of nesting beaches, illegal hunting for local consumption, and drowning in intensive fishing gear.
- The Invasive Threat: They are heavily outcompeted by the introduced, invasive Chinese softshell turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis). These smaller, invasive turtles reproduce rapidly in agricultural canals, destroy native fish stocks, and degrade habitats meant for the native cagot
CANTORI'S GIANT SOFTSHELL TURTLE(Picture Gallery (click on photos to enlarge)
Cantori's Giant Softshell Turtle Taxon Profile
PHILIPPINES BOX TURTLE
(Coura philippinensis) Blanck, Gaillard et al, 2023
- The Soft Shell: Unlike typical hard-shelled turtles, its shell (carapace) lacks bony scales or scutes. Instead, it is flat, rubbery, disc-like, and surrounded by thick, soft cartilaginous margins.
- "Frog-faced" Structure: It features a broad, flattened head with very small eyes positioned close to the absolute tip of its mouth, giving it a distinctive frog-like facial structure. It possesses a remarkably short, stubby snout (proboscis) compared to other softshell species.
- Coloration: The carapace is uniformly smooth and olive to olive-brown. Its underside (plastron) is an unpatterned, uniform off-white. Hatchlings and juveniles often exhibit yellow framing around their shells and dark spotting on their heads.
- Size: It is considered the largest extant freshwater turtle species. Adults globally can grow up to 39 inches (100 cm) in carapace length and exceed 220 pounds (100 kg). Local specimens rescued in the Philippines, like the breeding female "Malaya," measure around 47 cm and weigh roughly 10 kg. [
- Benthic Lifestyle: This turtle is a highly aquatic, deep-water creature that spends 95% of its existence buried completely motionless under the muddy or sandy bottom substrate of riverbeds. Only its eyes and nose protrude through the sediment to monitor the water column.
- Breathing & Physiology: Because it lives buried underwater, it only surfaces to breathe fresh atmospheric air twice a day. It supplements this via pharyngeal and cloacal tissue respiration, effectively absorbing dissolved oxygen directly from the water.
- Ambush Feeding: It is a hyper-fast carnivorous ambush predator. Hidden in the sand, it waits for fish, crustaceans, and mollusks to pass before snapping out its neck with explosive velocity.
- Brackish Water Tolerance: While fundamentally a lowland freshwater river species, it possesses an extraordinary physiological tolerance for saline and brackish water, enabling individuals to move freely through coastal estuaries, mangrove swamps, and river mouths.
- Luzon Island: Historically documented across major watersheds including Cagayan, Isabela, and Quirino. Its most critically active modern stronghold is the pristine, fast-flowing Apayao River system within the globally recognized Biosphere Reserve of the yApayao (BRyA).
- Mindanao Island: Historically recorded in the Agusan del Sur region, particularly around the vast marshlands of the Agusan River basin, though modern sightings here are incredibly sparse.
- Apex Riverine Cleaner: As a long-lived apex carnivore, it acts as a natural filter and cleaner for major river systems. By feeding on decaying organic matter, weak or diseased fish, and abundant crustaceans, it regulates aquatic populations and prevents the stagnation of inland waterways.
- Bio-Indicator of River Health: Because they strictly require clean, stable sand or mud substrates, minimal chemical pollution, and complex undisturbed river dynamics to burrow and breed, their presence serves as a direct indicator of a highly functional, healthy watershed ecosystem.
- Global & National Status: It is classified globally as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List due to an estimated 80% population decline. Locally, it is heavily protected under DENR Administrative Order No. 2019-09.
- Primary Threats: The species faces extinction due to river siltation from deforestation, sand-mining of nesting beaches, illegal hunting for local consumption, and drowning in intensive fishing gear.
- The Invasive Threat: They are heavily outcompeted by the introduced, invasive Chinese softshell turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis). These smaller, invasive turtles reproduce rapidly in agricultural canals, destroy native fish stocks, and degrade habitats meant for the native cagot
Cantori's Giant Softshell Turtle Taxon Profile
Philippines Box Turtle
(Coura philippinensis) Blanck, Gaillard et al, 2023
Local Name : Pagong,
(Coura philippinensis) Blanck, Gaillard et al, 2023
Local Name : Pagong,
Physical Description and Morphology
Shell & Size: A small freshwater turtle typically ranging between 150 mm to 200 mm in carapace length. The carapace is strongly arched, dark brown to olive-brown, and features a slightly or non-serrated hind margin.
The Hinge Mechanism: Both the front and back portions of the lower shell (plastron) are movable via a flexible hinge, allowing the turtle to close its shell completely to protect its head and limbs. The plastron is dirty white to yellowish-brown, characteristically marked with large blackish blotches.
Head & Limbs: The head is dark-brown to greenish-brown, featuring distinct yellowish or whitish stripes (typically one extending from the eye to the ear and another broader stripe from the corner of the mouth to the ear). The exposed skin features prominent tubercles. Fore legs possess five clawed digits with large basal scales, while the longer hind legs have four clawed digits.
Shell & Size: A small freshwater turtle typically ranging between 150 mm to 200 mm in carapace length. The carapace is strongly arched, dark brown to olive-brown, and features a slightly or non-serrated hind margin.
The Hinge Mechanism: Both the front and back portions of the lower shell (plastron) are movable via a flexible hinge, allowing the turtle to close its shell completely to protect its head and limbs. The plastron is dirty white to yellowish-brown, characteristically marked with large blackish blotches.
Head & Limbs: The head is dark-brown to greenish-brown, featuring distinct yellowish or whitish stripes (typically one extending from the eye to the ear and another broader stripe from the corner of the mouth to the ear). The exposed skin features prominent tubercles. Fore legs possess five clawed digits with large basal scales, while the longer hind legs have four clawed digits.
Habitat & Behavior
Preferences: Inhabits shallow, slow-moving, or still freshwater bodies such as streams, marshes, swamps, and human-modified agricultural landscapes like rice paddies.
Activity & Diet: Primarily semi-aquatic and nocturnal, spending daylight hours hiding under debris along stream banks.
Reproduction: Lays small clutches of hard, calcareous, elongated eggs in forest humus or moist soil, with an incubation period typically lasting between 70 to 100 days.
Preferences: Inhabits shallow, slow-moving, or still freshwater bodies such as streams, marshes, swamps, and human-modified agricultural landscapes like rice paddies.
Activity & Diet: Primarily semi-aquatic and nocturnal, spending daylight hours hiding under debris along stream banks.
Juveniles are significantly more aquatic than adults. It is omnivorous, feeding on aquatic plants, fruits, fungi, insects, worms, and small invertebrates. Reproduction: Lays small clutches of hard, calcareous, elongated eggs in forest humus or moist soil, with an incubation period typically lasting between 70 to 100 days.
Taxonomic Background- Previous Classification: Populations in the Philippines were previously lumped under the Southeast Asian box turtle (Cuora amboinensis).
- Recent Reclassification: Following morphological review and DNA analysis, researchers separated the Philippine population into its own distinct species (Cuora philippinensis), published in 2023 in the Russian Journal of Herpetology.
- Species: Cuora philippinensis (Blanck, Gaillard, Protiva, Wheatley, Shi, Liu, Ray & Anders, 2023)
- Type Locality: The Philippines (with type specimens associated with historical collections, including from Negros and other islands).
Distribution
Found across practically major islands of the Philippines from lowlands up to elevations of around 500 meters.
Found across practically major islands of the Philippines from lowlands up to elevations of around 500 meters.
(Taxonomists also note distinct regional variations, sometimes grouping local populations under Cuora amboinensis or recognizing specific endemic lineages like Cuora philippinensis).
Modern Conservation Status & Threats
Status Update: Contrary to older assessments listing it as "Common," the species (along with its broader complex) is currently classified globally as Endangered by the IUCN Red List and is listed under CITES Appendix II.
Threats: Populations have drastically declined due to intense over-exploitation for the international pet trade, local consumption, and heavy export for traditional medicine and food markets abroad (particularly to China).
Economic & Cultural Context: While historically used as a local source of protein or kept in small-scale cultural settings in regions like the Visayas, commercial harvesting has placed heavy pressure on wild populations. Conservation groups and assurance colonies (such as those managed by the Turtle Survival Alliance) now prioritize captive breeding and legal protections to prevent further decline.
PHILIPPINE BOX TURTLE (Picture Gallery (click on photos to enlarge)
ASIAN LEAF TURTLE
(Cyclemys dentata) Gray , 1831
Status Update: Contrary to older assessments listing it as "Common," the species (along with its broader complex) is currently classified globally as Endangered by the IUCN Red List and is listed under CITES Appendix II.
Threats: Populations have drastically declined due to intense over-exploitation for the international pet trade, local consumption, and heavy export for traditional medicine and food markets abroad (particularly to China).
Economic & Cultural Context: While historically used as a local source of protein or kept in small-scale cultural settings in regions like the Visayas, commercial harvesting has placed heavy pressure on wild populations. Conservation groups and assurance colonies (such as those managed by the Turtle Survival Alliance) now prioritize captive breeding and legal protections to prevent further decline.
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Asian Leaf Turtle
(Cylemys denta) Gray, 1831
Local Name : Pagong, Kuritan, Bayu-o, Ba-o, Bakoko Serrated Shelled Fresh-water Turtle
(Cylemys denta) Gray, 1831
Local Name : Pagong, Kuritan, Bayu-o, Ba-o, Bakoko
, commonly known as the
Physical Desription and Morphology
Carapace: Measures approximately 154 to 195 mm in length. It is moderately depressed (flattened on top) with a smooth profile, a distinct central keel, and a noticeably serrated posterior margin.
Plastron: Does not completely close the shell opening and features a developing hinge in maturity.
Coloration & Head Markings: The dorsal soft tissue and shell range from light to dark brown.
Limbs: Forelegs possess five digits with partial webbing; hind legs have four clawed digits. Unlike strong open-water swimmers, their limb structure is adapted for walking along shallow stream beds and navigating terrestrial leaf litter.
Carapace: Measures approximately 154 to 195 mm in length. It is moderately depressed (flattened on top) with a smooth profile, a distinct central keel, and a noticeably serrated posterior margin.
Plastron: Does not completely close the shell opening and features a developing hinge in maturity.
The coloration is brownish-yellow marked with characteristic dark, radiating lines along the anterior and inner seams. Coloration & Head Markings: The dorsal soft tissue and shell range from light to dark brown.
The head and neck are yellowish-brown to olive, adorned with fine dark speckling and prominent longitudinal stripes (including a distinct line running from the occipitotemporal region down the neck and another passing behind the eye above the ear). Limbs: Forelegs possess five digits with partial webbing; hind legs have four clawed digits. Unlike strong open-water swimmers, their limb structure is adapted for walking along shallow stream beds and navigating terrestrial leaf litter.
Habitat and Behavior
Microhabitat: Inhabits clear, slow-moving lowland and hill streams, small rivers, and forest wetlands.
Lifestyle: Exhibiting semi-aquatic tendencies, adults often spend diurnal hours resting under dense riparian vegetation, rock crevices, or partially submerged in shallow water, turning more terrestrial or foraging by twilight and nighttime. Juveniles tend to be more aquatic and active during daylight hours.
Defense Mechanism: When handled or severely stressed, individuals will often defensively evacuate or squirt the contents of their digestive tract.
Diet: Omnivorous, feeding on aquatic vegetation, fallen fruits, insects, worms, crustaceans, and scavenged carrion.
Microhabitat: Inhabits clear, slow-moving lowland and hill streams, small rivers, and forest wetlands.
Lifestyle: Exhibiting semi-aquatic tendencies, adults often spend diurnal hours resting under dense riparian vegetation, rock crevices, or partially submerged in shallow water, turning more terrestrial or foraging by twilight and nighttime. Juveniles tend to be more aquatic and active during daylight hours.
Defense Mechanism: When handled or severely stressed, individuals will often defensively evacuate or squirt the contents of their digestive tract.
Diet: Omnivorous, feeding on aquatic vegetation, fallen fruits, insects, worms, crustaceans, and scavenged carrion.
Distribution and Status
Distribution: Across Southeast Asia, it ranges from Northeast India and Bangladesh through Myanmar, Thailand, Indochina, Malaysia, and Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Borneo).
Conservation Status: Globally assessed as Near Threatened (NT) by the IUCN and listed under CITES Appendix II.
ASIAN LEAF TURTLE (Picture Gallery (click on photos to enlarge)
Distribution: Across Southeast Asia, it ranges from Northeast India and Bangladesh through Myanmar, Thailand, Indochina, Malaysia, and Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Borneo).
Within the Philippines, populations are primarily concentrated in the Palawan faunal region (including Palawan, Balabac, and the Calamian) Sulu archipelagos and Tawi-Tawi). Conservation Status: Globally assessed as Near Threatened (NT) by the IUCN and listed under CITES Appendix II.
Local populations face increasing pressures from habitat degradation, subsistence collection for food, and exploitation by the international pet trade.
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